Meiteis-Kukis conflicts in Manipur: A Critical Analysis of the Devastating Incidents on the Kuki Community

Abstract

Abstract 

Introduction: Manipur in India's northeast has been caught amid ethnic tensions and violence between the Meitei and Kuki communities. The strife arises from rivalries over access to resources, political representation, and land, which is exacerbated by the state's convoluted history and mountainous geography. The Meiteis' quest for ST (Scheduled Tribe) status faces opposition from Kuki and Naga groups, who fear it may undermine their constitutional protections and land ownership, potentially leading to violence. Methodology: This study examines violence in Manipur between the Kuki and Meitei groups through qualitative and quantitative content analysis of secondary sources, including news articles, reports, social commentary, journal articles, the Media and Documentation Cell of the Kuki Students Organization (KSO), and social media. Result: The article highlights the severe violence against the Kuki and Meitei communities, including arms looting by Meiteis. It details the brutal experiences of Kuki women, girls, and children, including naked parades, rape, harassment, torture, and death. Men also face brutal fates, with many being beheaded, burnt alive, shot to death, beaten to death, and chopped by Meiteis. The article highlights the Kuki victims from May 3, 2023, to November 2024. It also highlighted the Kuki's murder of Meitei men, women, and children. This study underscores the necessity of accountability, justice, and assistance in addressing human rights abuses, and the role documentation can play in advocacy, education, and the generation of policy interventions to protect against future abuses, including against the most vulnerable sectors of the population, children, and women. Conclusion: Manipur violence, rooted in historical, social, cultural, ethnic, and political factors, has led to human rights violations, killings, and arson. Resolving the conflict requires a comprehensive strategy that emphasizes disarmament and demilitarization of violent groups, alongside promoting dialogue and motivating authorities to pursue a peaceful resolution.

Introduction

India's northeast, particularly Manipur, has been plagued by ethnic tensions and violence between the Meitei and Kuki communities. The conflict's roots lie in the state's complex history, geographical divisions, and competing demands for resources and political representation (De, 2024). In May 2023, tensions escalated into widespread violence, resulting in significant loss of life, displacement, and destruction of property. The Meiteis comprise 53% of the population and have been seeking Scheduled Tribe (ST) status, which has been met with resistance from the Kuki and Naga tribal communities. These communities, classified as STs, fear that the Meiteis' demand is an attempt to circumvent constitutional safeguards and acquire tribal lands. Conflict has its roots in the state's geographical divisions. The Meiteis are confined to merely 10% of the state's land, while the remaining 90% is designated as tribal territory (Oinam Bhagat, 2003a). This classification prohibits Meitei individuals from purchasing land in over 90% of the state, fuelling tensions with the tribal communities.

The Indian government's declaration of hill areas in Manipur under Article 371C of the Constitution has further complicated the issue. This provision established the Hill Areas Committee and village authorities, effectively limiting land ownership to tribals. The Meiteis' quest for ST status has been driven by their desire to access tribal lands. However, the Kuki and Naga communities view this demand as threatening their constitutional rights and safeguards. The recent violence has highlighted the urgent need for a comprehensive solution to address the complex issues driving this conflict. This article examines the devastating incidents of the Kuki-Meitei conflict in Manipur, including the loss of life, displacement, and destruction of property, to provide a deeper understanding of the complex issues driving this conflict.

Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:-

(i) To analyze the most critical incidents in the Manipur conflict involving the Meiteis and Kukis

(ii) To explore the patterns of violence, ruthless killings, and analyze their underlying causes.

(iii) To analyze why state administration is criticized and accused in the Manipur conflict

(iv) To determine how many arms were looted by the Meiteis during the Manipur conflict

(v) To determine the number of Meiteis and Kukis dead, injured, displaced persons, villages burnt, houses burnt, churches burnt, and others destroyed during the Conflict.

Literature Review

Scale of violence: Das, P, "The Unfolding Kuki–Meitei Conflict in Manipur," 2023. On May 3, 2023, ATSUM (the All Tribal Students' Union Manipur) held a 'Tribal Solidarity March', which initially began peacefully but escalated into ethnic violence in Manipur's first week of May. Das highlights that violence erupted when unidentified Meitei gangs ignited fires in the Torbung area of Churachandpur district, leading to a retaliatory response from the Kukis against the Meiteis. The Conflict resulted in significant destruction, with at least 70 fatalities, 231 injuries, 1,700 homes set ablaze, and 48,000 individuals displaced. Ellis-Petersen, H, Manipur: Why is there conflict, and how is the government responding? 2023. Ellis-Petersen reports escalating violence between the Meitei and Kuki groups in northeast India, with both sides threatening civil war amid protests against the government's response. Initially, Meitei factions instigated violence against Kuki communities, destroying over 250 Kuki churches and villages. Additionally, numerous firearms from local army and police barracks contributed to the violence.

Behera, A., "The Social and Political Dimensions," 2023. Behera stresses that Kukis and Meiteis have been forced to leave each other's lands and that this situation is unlikely to change soon, despite disagreement over when the violence began. According to Behera, Inspector General of Police I. K. Muivah stated that as of September 14, 2023, official estimates reported around 4,700 burnt dwellings, 5,000 arson cases, and 175 fatalities. He adds that 386 places of worship have been vandalized. Other sources, including the Kuki Student Organization, provide different numbers; Behera says, including 360 churches demolished, 7,000 dwellings burnt, and 146 Kuki deaths. Leth, S."Understanding the complex conflict unfolding in Manipur", 2023. Leth reported that the ongoing conflict has resulted in nearly 200 deaths and the displacement of over 70,000 individuals, including 10,000 children. Government estimates indicate that over 220 churches have been destroyed, while the United Christian Forum claims this number exceeds 500. Additionally, around 4,694 other properties have been lost. According to Leth, some 5,600 weapons and 650,000 rounds of ammunition have vanished from state armories as a result of numerous insurgency organizations arming both populations.

Gendered Impact: Rathore, S. “Navigating the Kuki-Meitei conflict in India’s Manipur state”, 2023. Rathore reports over 60,000 people displaced and more than 130 deaths due to the Kuki-Meitei conflict in Manipur, India. She highlights a disturbing video exposing a crowd sexually abusing two women, which has garnered global attention. Rathore expresses concern that the government's inaction has exacerbated ethnic divisions, complicating efforts to resolve the issue. She insists that immediate action is essential to tackle the humanitarian crisis and foster peace building. Official figures indicate that as of November 2024, the violence has claimed 258 lives, displaced 60,000, and destroyed 4,786 homes and 386 places of worship. Kumara, B, "Ethnic conflict in Manipur, Northeast India: Historical Roots, Current Challenges, and Pathways to Peace," 2024. According to Kumara, the Conflict between the Meitei and Kuki communities is increasingly driven by political representation and land access issues, leading to violence, fatalities, and substantial internal displacement. Reports indicate 207 fatalities and 41,425 displacements among the Kuki community, whereas the Meitei organization documents 114 deaths and 31 individuals missing. Women face intensified struggles in relief camps, often becoming primary family supporters while men struggle to find work. Kumara details several violent incidents, including the horrific burning alive of a Meitei woman married to a Kuki, targeted killings, rapes attributed to both communities, and the public humiliation of two Kuki women in a naked parade.

Research Gap - A significant research gap exists regarding violence in Manipur, specifically concerning the actual number of fatalities among the Meitei community and the situation of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), which includes Kukis, men, women, girls, and children. There is a need for more studies that investigate the underlying reasons for ethnic conflict, social and cultural aspects, and the government's position concerning human rights violations. Furthermore, the lasting effect of physical violence on victims and the trauma and displacement resulting from it, as well as social-economic effects, require further research. Moreover, such an analysis in policy-making on prevention or response to human rights violations in Manipur, especially among Kukis, would be more beneficial to policy planners and other stakeholders.

Conceptual Framework

Manipur's conflict is not new, nor is it limited to recent outbreaks of violence, but it has deep ethnic roots. The Kuki and Meitei communities reacted strongly to a past event that garnered significant media attention and prompted calls for action. To understand what is going on here, we need a theory that explains the violence. One answer is conflict theory, which suggests that competition for land, power, tribal status, resources, and even ethnocentrism has caused the fighting (Kumar Bipin, 2024). To say that the battle over power, past and present, has resulted in tension, violence, and human rights abuses. The Kukis have been the most unjustly victimized with targeted violence, forced migration, social exclusion, and systemic oppression. When we peer into this strife through the lens of conflict theory, we can at last begin to understand how competition and power motivate the cycles of violence that we inflict and endure. Discrimination and inequality due to historical, social, and economic factors are highlighted in the conflict theory (Lourembam, 2025). The 'marginality' experience and engagement of certain groups in Manipur. This issue has aggravated relations in ethnic neighborhoods and, eventually, led to confrontation. Understanding the role of economic and social inequalities enables policymakers to craft targeted interventions to address those factors and defuse community tensions. The Ethnic Violence Framework illuminates the significance of Manipur's historical ethnic relations. The colonial and post-colonial political arena has contributed to stoking today's ethnic tensions (Abhimanyu & Yogesh, 2025). By exploring this history, policymakers can develop more effective approaches to address the underlying causes of the Conflict and promote community healing.

The Manipur conflict has a long history of communal clashes. It is the Kuki community that has just caught our eye in an action that demands intervention, immediacy. To provide some context, let us dive into a few theories about why this violence occurs and what effects it has. The Human Security Framework provides a key lens on the war and its impact on human security, dignity, and well-being. The current state of affairs in Manipur has impacted both Meitei and Kuki civilians—especially the Kuki community—facing grave human security concerns. Here, let us instead apply the Human Security Framework to clarify the humanitarian impact of the Conflict and how it might be addressed. The human security approach sharpens the spotlight on civilians and human security as a central concern in conflict zones. For instance, in Manipur, it requires responding to the immediate needs of affected populations—food, shelter, and healthcare. It includes decades of planning to boost economic growth, foster social cohesion, and safeguard human rights. By centering efforts on human security, policymakers can help mitigate the war's humanitarian toll and lay the groundwork for a more stable, peaceful future.

This study uses a multi-theoretic approach to analyze the complexity of conflict through three analytical lenses: Conflict Theory, Human Security Framework, and Ethnic Violence Framework.

1) Conflict Theory (Power/Militarization): This perspective focuses on power dynamics and the legitimization of violence, highlighting the orchestration of armed looting as a strategic means of gaining control over violence and altering power balances, which militarizes civilian settings. Human Security Framework (Individual-Centric): This framework shifts focus from state security to individual safety, analyzing the intentional use of sexual violence as a tool for dismantling community integrity and inflicting personal harm, thereby violating the principle of "freedom from fear" as articulated in United Nations Development Program (UNDP's) 1994 framework. Ethnic Violence Framework (Identity/Structure): This lens assesses how state biases and institutional failures foster violent conflict through discriminatory practices, illustrating how narratives around group differences increase tensions, leading to violence rather than resolution.

2) Analysis/Findings: Section A: Under Conflict Theory, looting symbolizes a transition from state control to decentralized violence, wherein security is determined by those with the most weaponry, generating a security vacuum. Section B: The Human Security Framework shows that sexual violence undermines safety, engineered to terrorize populations, not just dispatch enemy fighters. Section C: Via the Ethnic Violence Framework, there is evidence of institutional bias — state inaction or favoritism solidifying the idea that government structures can amplify conflict by privileging one group over another.

3) Synthesis: Together, these three lenses provide a layered understanding of conflict. Conflict Theory reveals mechanisms of violence and shifts in power, the Human Security Framework underscores the individual and community consequences, and the Ethnic Violence Framework contextualizes group targeting through state biases. Each perspective enriches the interpretation of the complex dynamics of conflict.

Methodology

Studying the Manipur conflict necessitates the use of secondary sources to focus on specific episodes. The research is based on qualitative and quantitative analyses of secondary data using thematic and content analysis methods.

(1) Type of Data - (i) Reports and Documentation: Reports from Manipur Autopsy, Local Situation Report, People’s Union for Civil Liberties Report, Editors’ Guild of India, Report of the fact-finding mission on media’s reportage of the ethnic violence in Manipur, Central Bureau Investigation (CBI) report, and Kuki Students Organization Media and Documentation Cell (ii) Reputable Media Archives (National and Regional): Content from established news organizations covering local voices, including, India Today, Scroll News, Deccan Herald, The Hill Journal, The Economic Times, and Newsreel Asia etc. (iii) Peer-Reviewed Academic Journals: Articles from reputable publishers (e.g., National and International journals) analyzing ethnic conflict, significant incidents on the Kukis and Meiteis.

(2) Timeframe: This study examined events and data related to the Manipur violence among the Kuki community from June 2024 to December 2024. The collection of data sources and the writing of this article, however, took approximately 12 months.

(3) Analytical Approach - (i) Content analysis: This study uses mixed methods content analysis, both qualitative and quantitative, to examine the Manipur Conflict from multiple incidents by using mostly newspapers, academic journals, fact-finding reports, and documentation. Inductively code and categorize ideas in a way that is used to identify emerging themes and trends. Trustworthiness is followed through a consistent coding framework, validated by peer debriefing and source triangulation. (ii) Thematic analysis: Thematic analysis organizes codes to develop themes exposing patterns of violence, centering on central and state actors and attacks on targeted civilians. It begins by coding raw data from field and fact-finding reports to analyze the conflict dynamics in Manipur, including major episodes of violence between Meiteis and Kukis.

Ethical Considerations

The data in this research come from publicly available secondary sources documenting the Manipur violence. Different sources sometimes provide different details about the same Incident. Instead, it sought to generate the best possible summary from the information present, exploiting gaps as hints rather than barriers. The researcher knows this stuff intimately, including its effects, not just on the direct victims but on social circles. Using secondary data meant that all the analysis relied on publicly available sources. This approach avoided any privacy or confidentiality issues for anyone involved. These sources included trusted organizations and peer-reviewed journals, both expected to remain relevant, as well as trustworthy news sites. With the visual material, the conscientious researcher took pains not to exacerbate suffering. Violent and traumatic events are described in a straightforward, fact-based way. The presentation stays respectful and avoids anything sensationalized. Verifying information from secondary data brings its own challenges for the researcher. Some accounts in these sources are hard to confirm in full. The researcher conducted extensive cross-verification using credible sources wherever possible. Still, certain accounts have limitations or lean toward interpretations different from the one presented here.

Background of the Conflict

Manipur's conflict, which intensified in May 2023, originates from longstanding structural, historical, and demographic disparities rather than a single incident. It is a geographic divide between the Imphal Valley, which is densely populated by the Meitei community, and the predominantly tribal Hill districts. The Imphal Valley, occupying only 10% of Manipur's total area, holds over 50% of its population (Oinam, 2003). This demographic imbalance harkens back to British colonial-era policies that crafted separate administrative areas. Following India's independence, Article 371C of the Indian Constitution further entrenched this division by restricting land acquisition in the hill areas to tribal groups while allowing their access to land in the valley, worsening existing inequalities. At the heart of the conflict over land and indigenous identity are rivalries between the Meitei, Kukis, and Nagas. The Meiteis, feeling marginalized in their valley, seek ST status to buy land in the hills to protect their culture. Conversely, the Kukis and Nagas regard their land as sacred and fear that granting ST status to the Meiteis would threaten their land, identity, and autonomy; they view the Meiteis as more powerful economically and politically. Meiteis have engaged in various methods, including illegal tactics, to claim tribal territories, particularly those of the Kuki community, reflecting a deliberate effort to appropriate land that is not theirs (Scribd, 2023).

Manipur’s political setup is inherently unfair, according to the hill communities, because they have merely 19 out of 60 Assembly seats, despite living on 90% of the land (Bavge & Khapare, 2022) In the Meitei-dominated government, hill districts are often left with significant infrastructure, education, and healthcare gaps because developmental projects tend to be concentrated in the valley. It is this difference that has fanned a simmering restlessness among the Kukis as they have been clamouring for a separate administration. Beefed-up ethno nationalist movements such as “Greater Nagalim” and “Kukiland” have increased suspicion amongst communities. The Meiteis are afraid of population invasion due to migration, particularly from Myanmar, which may reduce their population further below 50%. This fear intensified following the 2021 Myanmar coup, with numerous Meiteis suspecting the Kuki community of assisting in illegal settlements that may alter the state’s population makeup. The Meiteis asserted that the Kuki illegally settled Chin refugees in the hills of Manipur because they shared ethnic links with the Chin (Haokip, 2025).

The state government policies, such as the "War on Drugs" and eviction drives in "Reserved Forests," are perceived by Kuki groups as key factors driving their displacement from ancestral lands. Under the direction of Chief Minister N. Biren Singh, the "war on drugs" was launched to end the illegal poppy cultivation in hilly areas (Leekla & Devi, 2023). The Kuki allege these policies unfairly target them. But the government maintains they’re needed to protect state land and fight drugs, situating these interventions within broader battles over land use and ownership.

The Manipur High Court has directed the state government to consider including the Meitei community in the ST list within 4 weeks, following a 10-year delay (De, 2024). The order was made on March 27, 2023, by Justice MV Muralidharan, the Acting Chief Justice of the Manipur High Court. On hearing a petition filed by members of the Meetei Tribe Union, the court agreed to fast-track the inclusion process. However, the Supreme Court of India has lambasted the Manipur High Court order, saying that it is factually incorrect (Monnappa, 2024). On May 3, 2023, thousands of people attended the 'Tribal Solidarity March' in all ten hill districts of Manipur to oppose the Meitei community's demand for inclusion in the ST category. The All Tribal Students Union Manipur called the march to express dissent to the "persistent demands of the Meitei community for its inclusion in the ST category" (Kumar, 2023). The students' Union argued that lawmakers in the valley areas endorse the Meitei demand and need measures to protect tribal interests. Thousands joined the processions, waving placards and chanting slogans against ST status for the Meitei community. Counter-blockades were put up in valley districts, including Sugnu in Kakching district, in support of granting ST status to Meiteis. The rally concluded peacefully without any untoward incidents in the hill districts.

A conflict between the two communities began when the Meitei from the Valley community, taking advantage of the Tribals' Solidarity March in Churachandpur, Manipur, set fire to the Anglo-Kuki War (1917-1919) Centenary Gate at Leisang Village, which is roughly 3 km from Churachandpur Police Station (Kamei & Gangmei, 2024). On May 3, 2023, a mob of over 200 Meitei counter-protesters clashed with tribal protesters, causing violence throughout Manipur. The Conflict spread rapidly, with Meiteis burning minority ethnic tribes' churches and some Meitei churches in Imphal city. Over 220 churches have been officially reported destroyed by the government, while the United Christian Forum claims the number exceeds 500 (Koijam, 2025). The violent Meitei mob attacked and torched tribal houses, particularly those of the Kuki ethnic tribes, in various tribal localities of Imphal city. While some Kukis in Imphal faced murderous attacks, Meiteis in the tribal-dominated hill region faced similar attacks by Kuki mobs.

Results

Thematic Findings

1. The Violence Pattern in Manipur - Manipur's current wave of violence is set against a backdrop of rising ethnic Conflict between the Meitei and Kuki groups, whose long-standing dispute has been over territory, resources, and political representation. This long-standing, complex Conflict has resulted in widespread effects of displacement, destruction of property, and loss of life, with allegations of human rights abuses made by both parties. Beneath the dispute is a complex system of historical, social, and political issues (Rajasekhar N, 2025). The Meitei and Kuki have long-standing differences over land, resources, and political representation. Competing interests have exacerbated cultural and language differences and suspicions among the populations. This Conflict has brought us round in circles of violence, with its toll on both sides. Not only has the violence inflicted physical harm and displacement, but it has also scarred the region’s social and economic fabric. The two sides’ accusations of human rights abuses have further complicated the situation to the point that it has become intractable. Therefore, the most recent causes of communal violence in Manipur have been the forest eviction and the desire for Meiteis to be granted ST status (Akhtar Md Nazir, 2024).

The historical context of the struggle is crucial for comprehending the contemporary situation. India's colonial legacy, the partition, and the integration of Manipur into the Union have fed into the complexities of the Conflict. The competing assertions of independence, sovereignty, and acknowledgement have fueled the intercommunal strife. The toll it has taken on civilians has been horrendous. Many have been driven from their homes, their livelihoods interrupted. Infrastructure, property, and social services have been destroyed, further exacerbating the humanitarian crisis. The allegations of atrocities furthermore have a discourse of responsibility and fairness. The Meitei have expressed grievances regarding their challenges in protecting their customs, land, beliefs, and livelihoods since Manipur became part of the Indian Union in 1949 (Behera Anshuman, 2023).

From May 3, 2023, to December 2024, the Manipur conflict significantly impacted the Meitei and Kuki communities, with ongoing violence including attacks, killings, and destruction of properties. Despite the Indian government's deployment of thousands of Central Forces, the situation remained volatile until the imposition of President's rule on February 13, 2025. Both groups have suffered violence, displacement, and multiple human rights violations. There are reports of some of the worst atrocities imaginable committed, including rape, torture, and extrajudicial killings, as well as widespread civilian suffering, injury, and property destruction (Mohapatra & Das, 2024). Particularly horrifying, beheadings and burnings alive highlight the degree of violence experienced by the community. It is a complicated situation that requires a nuanced understanding of the underlying issues to promote peace and defuse tensions.

2. Centre and State Actor Involvement - The Manipur violence has put state actors' complicity under the scanner, as both the central and state governments faced harsh criticism. Chief Minister N. Biren Singh's government has been accused of sidelining the Meiteis and targeting the Kukis in the form of forced evictions. Furthermore, the government's handling of the violence has been criticized, including allegations of security operations' bias and a lack of proper investigation of human rights abuses. Even Chief Minister N. Biren Singh himself has not escaped his role in the tempest examined; particularly after audio recordings surfaced that allegedly record him recounting his part in spurring ethnic violence in Manipur. For that matter, the apex court (Supreme Court of India) has asked the CFSL (Forensic Science Laboratory) to examine these tapes, which is spinning an additional twist around the CM's behavior. The CFSL confirmed a 93% match between the Chief Minister's voice and the audio recording.

3. Targeted attacks on Civilians - The recent violence in Manipur has raised alarming concerns about the targeting of civilians, with men, women, children, and the elderly suffering injuries, displacement, and trauma. Civilians are protected under IHL (International Humanitarian Law) and may not be attacked. Unlawful attacks on civilians have been a consequence of the continuous Conflict, harming and suffering those who are not involved in hostilities. Horrible atrocities have been committed against several innocent civilians, such as massacres, rape, torture, harassment, burning alive, naked parades, and displacement; many are also unable to obtain essentials like food, water, and medical attention. In addition to taking action to stop additional suffering, those who are responsible for these attacks must be held accountable. The authorities should do everything possible to safeguard civilians and facilitate humanitarian aid, medical, and psychosocial support for those impacted. Putting civilian safety first is not only essential to reducing the Conflict's humanitarian toll. It is essential to lay the groundwork for a more stable environment. All parties to the Conflict should make practical efforts to prevent or reduce civilian casualties.

Appendix (A)

3. Analysis and Significant Incidents on the Meteis from 2023 to 2024

3.1 Looted Arms by the Meiteis: On May 3, 2023, a report by the Press Trust of India detailed intense confrontations involving Meitei mobs, the Meitei Militia Arambai Tenngol (AT), and Meitei Leepun (ML). During these confrontations, these groups reportedly attacked police stations, leading to the disappearance of approximately 600,000 rounds of ammunition and 3,000 firearms. Additionally, other reports indicate that the armory has suffered losses exceeding 4,000 advanced firearms and 500,000 rounds of ammunition (Pautunthang, 2024). The weapon looting in Manipur began on May 3, 2023, at the Police Training College in Imphal, occurring in two phases. The first phase saw the theft of roughly 1,600 guns during initial violence, while the second, coinciding with Union Home Minister Amit Shah's visit from May 27-28, resulted in the theft of 2,557 firearms. Additionally, a mob appropriated nearly 300 rifles and 19,800 rounds of ammunition from the 2nd Indian Reserve Battalion in Bishnupur district. Overall, reports indicate that around 5,000 firearms and 500,000 rounds of ammunition have been looted from police and military armories during the ethnic violence that started on May 3, 2023, The Telegraph online reported.

KRC Times Online News reports that around 6,000 guns have been taken from security forces since the Conflict began. The massive looting happened in early May 2023. Notably, the police station in Heingang, Imphal's Chief Minister Constituency, was abandoned after being plundered on May 4, leaving workers defenseless. The majority of the nearly 2,140 firearms seized from four police stations were plundered during this time; however, others were apparently given up quietly (People’s Union for Civil Liberties Report, 2025). Manipur police have confirmed that approximately 4,000 rifles and 50,000 rounds of ammunition have been stolen from police stations and armories across the state. Additionally, an audio tape has surfaced in which the Chief Minister of Manipur, N. Biren Singh, purportedly boasts about the looting, stating, "The 4,000-5,000 guns and arms looted so far… it is all because of me and my power" (The Hill Journal, 2024).

3.2 Aigejang/Khamenlok Incident: On June 14, 2023, a gunfight between alleged Kuki militants and Meetei militants in Aigejang Kuki hamlet near Khamenlok led to at least nine deaths and thirteen injuries in Kangpokpi District. Reports indicate that Kuki insurgents equipped with advanced weaponry attacked in Aigejang village, resulting in nine Meetei militants killed and 13 injured. The Kuki factions accused hard-line Meitei groups, led by Manipur police commandos, such as Arambai Tenggol and Meitel Leepun, of assaulting the Khamenlok regions on June 3, 2023, around 7:30 PM. In a disturbing display of violence, the Meitei attackers killed pigs in Aigejang village to commemorate their victory and later celebrated inside a church. After the Meitei invaders, numbering between 20 and 30, burned down two Kuki villages, they held a night celebration and disrespected a newly constructed church that they failed to demolish. However, a counterattack by Kuki militants and village volunteers resulted in several Meitei attackers being killed during a moment of unpreparedness (Khalvontawi, 2024).

Leithao Village Incident: On December 4, 2023, Meetei militants were reportedly captured and executed by suspected Kuki militants in Leithao village, Tengnoupal district. Thirteen dead bodies were recovered by Assam Rifles after a firing incident, primarily from Meitei-dominated areas of the Imphal Valley. Two victims resided in relief camps, one from Torbung in Churachandpur district and another from Moreh in Tengnoupal district (India Today, 2023). This Incident is a severe new spike in the region's ethnic Conflict, ratcheting up the violence and inter-community tension. According to police reports, armed militants have been implicated, eliciting nationwide condemnation and serious apprehensions regarding the safety of residents.The table below lists the thirteen Meitei militants who were killed by the Kuki militants in Tengnoupal District.

3.3 Serou Village Incident: An 80-year-old woman named Sorokhaibam Ibetombi was burned alive at Serou village in Kakching district by a mob in Manipur, a state at the heart of the violence. The horrifying event occurred during the night of May 27-28, 2023, as recounted by an eyewitness, TI Singh, from Serou Village. She referred to it as a deliberate assault, which was initiated at approximately 2:40 AM on May 27, 2023, when the perpetrators commenced igniting fires from an adjacent bridge, encircling the vicinity from six directions. The old lady, a freedom fighter's widow, was locked inside her house by an armed gang, who eventually torched her to death (The Economic Times, 2023). Nevertheless, the Kuki claim that the older Woman died from old age, as the crowd set fire to the houses, rather than being deliberately burned alive by an armed gang. A local stated that nobody knew she was inside the house during the Incident.

Koutruk, Imphal West Incident: A horrific attack in Koutruk hamlet (Imphal West) on September 1, 2024, claimed the life of 31-year-old Mrs. Ngangbam Surbala and severely wounded her toddler daughter. The assault, which militants allegedly conducted, also resulted in the death of another villager. All told, ten people were wounded, including Surbala's 8-year-old daughters and two policemen (Kumar Bipin, 2024). Manipur's Home Department reported two fatalities from an attack, including a man whose identity remains undisclosed. NDTV News Delhi reports that on Sunday, suspected Kuki militants in Manipur killed a Meitei woman in firing, as confirmed by statements from the state police and the Home Department. NDTV reported on the militants' enhanced capabilities, citing the use of advanced drones to launch multiple rocket-propelled grenades during the Incident (Achom & Choudhury, 2024).

Saiton Village Incident: A woman was shot dead while harvesting paddy in Manipur. On November 9, 2024, in Bishnupur district, 31-year-old Sapam Sofia was shot dead by suspected Kuki militants in the Saiton area of Bishnupur district while harvesting paddy alongside other farmers (Kumar Bipin, 2024). The gunfire was said to have come from militants in the adjoining hill areas of Churachandpur district. According to eyewitness reports, the unknown attackers fired from approximately 100 meters away and killed Sofia instantly with two gunshot wounds. Two days after the alleged murder, rape, and burning of a Kuki-Hmar woman by suspected Meitei militants in Jiribam district, women from the Meitei community were reportedly shot and killed by suspected Kuki insurgents, as reported by NDTV News Delhi.

Jiribam District Incident: On November 11, 2024, six victims disappeared from a relief camp in Jiribam district, Manipur. The Times of India reports that suspected Kuki insurgents abducted six women and children. After a few days, the bodies of the kidnapped individuals—Yumrembam Rani Devi (60), Telem Thoibi Devi (31) and her daughter Telem Thajamanbi Devi (8), Laishram Heithoibi Devi (25) with her two children Laishram Chingkheinganba Singh (2.5 years old) and Laishram Lamnganba Singh (10 months)—were found deceased. The bodies of two children and one Woman were found in the river on November 15, 2024, impacting the Meitei community in the Jiribam region of Manipur and the families linked to them (People’s Union for Civil Liberties Report, 2025).Based on forensic research, officials reported that three victims sustained severe injuries, including deep cuts and gunshot wounds. Notably, three-year-old Chingkheinganba Singh suffered a gunshot wound to the skull and had a missing right eye, as indicated by a postmortem examination.

Appendix (B)

4. Analysis and Significant Incidents on the Kukis from 2023 to 2024

4.1 Burned Alive - Mr. Laldingthanga Khongsai - A viral video circulating on social media in October 2023 showed a man being set on fire. The culprits, who spoke in Manipuri/Meitei, warned against taking photos, saying, "Do not click a photo." Manipur Security Advisor Kuldiep Singh confirmed that the video, which spread among the Kuki community, was from May 4, 2023, during ethnic riots in Manipur. Singh stated that the case had been recommended to the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) for investigation (CBI investigates case, 2023). The deceased, Lalding Thanga Khongsai (also known as Lal James), was a resident of Haokhongching Village, Kangpokpi District (Dey and Chaudhuri, 2023).

Mr. Nehmang Kipgen - Another horrifying incident occurred in May 2023 when the radicalized militant group Arambai Tenggol and State Forces, including police and commandos, burned to death Nehmang Kipgen, a Kuki individual with a hearing impairment from S. Phailengkot Village, Bungpi Block, Kangpokpi District. According to reports, the Meitei secessionist militant group abducted Kipgen, severed his arms and legs, and then burned him alive. The consequences of Nehmang Kipgen's attempted immolation are unimaginable.

Seven-year-old Child Tonsing with his mother and aunt - On May 4, 2023, seven-year-old Tongsing Hangsing (Kuki) and his family fled their village of Kangchup in the Kangpokpi area before a mob approached. The family had relocated to the Assam Rifles camp just outside the town the day before, anticipating violence from the Meiteis. A bullet splinter struck Tongsing's head in the afternoon on June 4, 2023, within the Assam Rifles' camp. According to the Assam Rifles official, the boy received oxygen, but his condition remained severe. Fortunately, an ambulance arrived shortly, escorted by S Ibomcha, the SP (Superintendent of Police) of Imphal West. Tongsing was accompanied by his mother, Mrs. Meena, and another neighbor, Mrs. Lydia Louremba. Meena, an Imphal native, had married Mr. Joshua Hangsing, Tongsing's father, a Kuki.As the ambulance attempted to proceed, it was obstructed by the Meira Paibis, a group representing a significant Meitei civil society movement. An officer reported they were blocked after 2 kilometers, prompting the police to provide the sole protection for the ambulance. A crowd halted the vehicles near Imphal, where the ambulance was transporting a seriously injured child and two Meitei women. Following clashes with police, the ambulance was set on fire, resulting in tragic losses, with only "a couple of bones" recovered from the scene, according to a police official (Saikia, 2023).

Benzamin Guite – Mr. Benzamin Guite, a 22-year-old village volunteer, was brutally killed during the Manipur conflict on May 28, 2023, in Sugnu Langching. His death resulted from attacks by Meitei groups, including Arambai Tenngol and Meitei Leepun, with support from local forces and the Assam Rifles. Following state directives, the Assam Rifles had disarmed rural volunteers, leaving them vulnerable. Guite was shot by a Meitei sniper and died despite attempts to save him. His body was subsequently set on fire while still partially alive, with footage documenting the scene, which included the word "KUKI" inscribed nearby (Haokip, 2025).

4.3.2 Multiple incidents of rape and killed (May 2023-2024):

(i) Miss Olivia Chongloi and Miss Florence Hangshing: In Imphal, the capital of Manipur, two Kuki young girls, Miss Olivia Chongloi and Miss Florence Hangshing, were raped on May 5, 2023. They were from Khopibung, Kangpokpi district. On May 5, 2023, Olivia and Florence were brutally raped and killed by roving mobs. According to reports, the two girls rented rooms surrounded by Meitei men. After being recognized by the Meitei mobs, the girls were gagged and carried away on May 5, 2023. They were then taken to another room and attacked. Between 5 PM and 7 PM on May 5, 2023, videos have emerged showing Meira Paibis encouraging young individuals to commit rape and assault against Kuki women, which is particularly disturbing (Report of fact-finding mission, 2023).According to the family, the girls' coworkers were powerless to help but heard them crying and pleading for release from outside the locked door, indicating that they had been raped, abused, and tormented. When the room was finally opened after 7 PM on May 5, 2023, it was found to be covered in the victims' blood and hair. They had been subjected to extreme cruelty.

(ii) One Kuki woman (name withheld) and Hatbem Kipgen. A 19-year-old Kuki tribal woman was allegedly raped by three men on May 15, 2023, near Imphal, the state capital. According to Reuters News, dated August 8, 2023, she was brought to a gathering of Meira Paibis, where she was thrashed in front of them. In a police complaint filed on July 21, 2023, and reviewed by Reuters, the Woman claimed that "one of the Meitei women from the mob gave clear instructions to four men to kill me." She stated that she had been too afraid to report the Incident sooner. Additionally, Mrs. Hatbem Kipgen, who was married to a Meitei man, was allegedly raped, tortured, and killed by Meitei radical mobs in June 2023. At the time of the Incident, she stayed in a Meitei relief camp in Sugnu, Churachandpur district (KSO Media & Documentation Cell, 2024).

(iii) Zosangkim Hmar: Zosangkim Hmar, a 38-year-old Kuki-Hmar tribal woman, was brutally raped and killed in Jiribam district, Manipur. The Incident occurred on November 7, 2024, when armed assailants, allegedly from the extremist Arambai Tenggol group, attacked her village, Zairawn. Zosangkim was shot, raped, and then burned alive in her own home. The autopsy revealed that Zosangkim was subjected to "third-degree" torture and burns while alive, leading to her death. The Jiribam Police registered a case of rape; however, doctors were unable to collect a vaginal smear due to the charred and unrecognizable body parts, which further complicated the investigation. The postmortem report stated that the Woman suffered 99% burns in the gruesome Incident in Jiribam. Her body was found charred, with missing parts of her upper limbs and facial structure. A wound was found on her right thigh, and a metallic nail was embedded in her left thigh (Kalita, 2024).

4.5 Kuki Women killed in Separate Incidents

Meitei radicals brutally murdered Mrs. Veinem Chongloi, 80, and her unmarried daughters, Miss Helam, 50, and Miss Hekim, 48, in their home in Uripok (Imphal West) on May 4, 2023. Mrs. Veinem was blind, sick, old, and bedridden; she was unaware of the brutality until her death. Miss Helam and Miss Hekim were thrashed and then sliced with sharp objects in their front yard (List of Kuki Women killed in Manipur violence, 2023).

Miss Nianghoihching Simte, a 33-year-old Kuki nurse, was shot dead on the night of May 5, 2023, in front of Venus Hotel in New Lamka by the Army in Churachandpur while part of a mob attempting to prevent the Army from evacuating the Meiteis. On June 10, 2023, Arambai Tenngol, with the assistance of the State Force, stormed Khoken village in Kangpokpi District and shot Mrs. Domkhohoi, a 75-year-old woman praying inside the local church, at about 4 AM. Meitei media/propagandists explain the shooting by claiming she was a sniper shooter (Rajpurohit, 2023). According to EastMojo News, a Kuki woman was shot dead outside the Shishu Nishtha Niketan School in Imphal West district on July 6, 2023. According to eyewitnesses, armed miscreants opened fire on the victim and fled the scene.

Mrs. Lethoi Haokip, 60, was shot dead by Manipur commandos on May 28, 2023, in Langching, Sugnu Churachandpur district. She was intellectually challenged and unwell.Two other women, Mrs. Nengkim Haokip, 60, of Bolkot village, Churachandpur district, and Neilam, 55, of Laimanai village, were brutally tortured and died in November 2023. The Incident occurred in Kangchup Chingkhong hamlet, Kangpokpi district, when five tribal people in a Bolero automobile were stopped at a security checkpoint. A crowd quickly appeared and abducted four people, including two women. Central security troops stationed there could only rescue one of them; the attackers assumed he was dead and abandoned him (Singh, 2023).

4.6 Incident relating to the Brutal Killing of Kuki Volunteers

Three Kuki Volunteers killed at Sugnu: A violent gunfight broke out in Sugnu, Chandel District, on May 28, 2023, resulting in the deaths of three Kuki men and leaving nine others wounded. Two of the deceased Kuki men were identified as 26-year-old Thangminlun Haokip from Phaisi village and 40-year-old Douminthang Haokip from Haikal village, both of whom succumbed to bullet wounds to their chests during the intense battle, as confirmed by Churachandpur district doctors, who provided detailed information about the cause of death. The continuous and intense exchange of fire led to a situation where one dead body remained unclaimed in the firing zone, highlighting the severity of the violence (The Hill Journals, 2023).

David Thiek Hmar beheaded alive: A horrific incident occurred on July 2, 2023, in Langza, a Hmar-Kuki village in Churachandpur district, where Mr. David Thiek Hmar was murdered and decapitated. This event took place between 3:30 AM and 4:00 AM on July 2, 2023, during a retaliatory attack on two Kuki villages, Langza and Chinglangmei, which resulted in approximately 30 houses being set on fire.The violence continued for 60 days despite the presence of 36,000 central forces in the state. A disturbing video emerged, showing a Kuki man's severed head displayed in the violence-plagued state.This heinous act demonstrates a complete disregard for human life and a reprehensible contempt for the tribal community"(Joshi Manas, 2023).

Two Kuki village volunteers killed and mutilated: Another horrifying occurrence took place in April 2024, when two Kuki "village volunteers" were murdered in Manipur, their remains mangled. According to separate announcements from the ITLF and the CoTU (Committee on Tribal Unity), two Kuki "village volunteers" were killed in Manipur's Kangpokpi district's Phailengmol area. The victims, 23-year-old Kamminlal Lupheng from Maphoudam village and 25-year-old Kamlengsat Lunkim from Bongjang hamlet, were killed by Meitei militants working with personnel of central security forces, tribal organizations claimed. Videos of their disfigured bodies went viral on social media following the shooting. Furthermore, the Meitei militants severed one of the victims' hands and attached it to a tree. (Thingkho Le Malcha, KSO Media & Documentation Cell 2024).

4.8 Incident Report: May 2023 – November 2024

During the ethnic unrest between the Meitei and Kuki populations in Manipur on May 3, 2023, public properties, schools, homes, churches, cars, and stores were set on fire. The Conflict has claimed the lives of at least 218 Kuki people and injured about 850 others since May 3, 2023. The Kuki village volunteers who passed away due to illness and other causes are included in the above table, in addition to those who were shot or murdered by the Meiteis. Based on available data from the official inventory of deaths and destruction caused by the violence, Kukis undoubtedly experienced more property loss. Despite sporadic incidents of violence continuing to occur in strife-torn Manipur, approximately 61,000 inmates continue to seek refuge in nearly 325 relief camps in the state until April 2024. Among the 61,000 people in various relief camps, 19,575 are Meiteis, and 41,425 are Kukis (Kumar Bipin, 2024). According to Thingkho Le Malcha (Kuki News), more than 7,000 dwellings and 200 Kuki villages were destroyed on June 6, 2024. Christian organizations in Manipur reported that up to 360 churches, including Meitei churches, were burned down during the communal unrest between the Kuki and Meitei people on May 3, 2023. Even the Meiteis destroyed 73 NGO (Non-Governmental Organization) offices.

Discussion

The current study's findings provide a clearer picture of the Manipur conflict, which pits two communities, the Meitei and the Kuki, against each other. There are further nuances to the findings, which are presented in this discussion section to address the research objectives and draw on existing literature. According to the findings of the study, there had been a record of violence perpetrated against the Kuki community described as atrocious, genocidal, brutal murders, killings, beheadings, and mutilations. The Meiteis experience fewer significant events than the Kukis due to their dominant position, approaching violence differently. Data suggests that Meiteis brutally kill 90% of Kukis, while Meiteis experience normal fatalities, with a notable incident involving an 80-year-old Meitei woman accidentally burned by a Kuki mob. This finding is consistent with the literature concerning ethnic Conflict in that the violence is genocidal (Ellis-Petersen, 2023). The study findings also exposed psychological violence, with many survivors not only experiencing violence but also trauma and severe stress.

The study displayed the level of armed looting as a significant aspect of the Conflict; 5,600 rifles and 650,000 bullets went missing from the state armories. This finding aligns with the literature on looting, which shows not only that it escalates violence in a conflict but also that it contributes to a humanitarian crisis. The study findings also suggested that armed looting has contributed to the escalation of violence and humanitarian aspects. The humanitarian crisis stemming from the Conflict is devastating. There have been over 393 deaths and more than 60,000 displaced individuals, along with significant property destruction affecting both Meitei and Kuki communities. The study's results highlighted the tremendous impact of the Conflict on the civilian population, including women and children.

Implications of the results - The study's findings have substantial implications for peace building initiatives in Manipur. The most pressing implications for accountability, Justice, and reconciliation will address the Conflict. However, they also highlight how to deal with the structural violence of ethnic-to-ethnic tensions and power struggles. The findings suggest that disarming militant groups and prescribing arms looting as a remedy are other considerations to reduce violence and promote peace. In addition, the findings describe the importance of humanitarian support and services for the same communities affected by the Conflict. According to the findings, building peace will incorporate dialogue and reconciliation between communities. The findings suggest a comprehensive effort to address the deep, historical, and structural causes of the Conflict and to promote peace that will endure.

Agreements and Contradictions with existing literature - The findings from the study were consistent with the literature on ethnic Conflict, which highlights the horrific violence and the terrible impact of violence on civilians. However, the study's findings also point to the specific context and dynamics of the Manipur conflict, which may not reflect the material features of other conflicts. The study's findings on the role of Meitei private militias and the looting of arms were consistent with the literature on non-state actors and arms proliferation in Conflict. However, the study also identified unique dynamics of the Manipur conflict that warrant further exploration.

New Insights–The study offered new insights into the nature of weaponry looting, the involvement of Meitei private militias in the fight, and Kuki village volunteers. The findings speak to the scope of the humanitarian crisis and to how accountability, Justice, and reconciliation might look. The research provided insight into the complexity and multidimensionality of the Conflict, and addressing it requires a deeper, more holistic approach that considers its complexities and root causes to enhance the chances of sustained peace. The research findings also provided new insights into the dynamics of the Conflict's impact on specific communities, such as women and children. The research made clear the need for targeted interventions for these communities and for protecting their rights.

Limitations

This study, which relies entirely on secondary sources, may limit its own breadth. It may do a disservice by failing to identify all the essential flashpoints of the Conflict, and it may create gaps in understanding the issue at hand. The data for this study came from existing literature and reports, which also have limitations in terms of accuracy and coverage. In the future, researchers should account for territories and relevant contexts and use a primary data collection strategy to provide a lens on the Conflict that offers greater depth.

Future Research Directions - Future research should also consider political economy, specifically how international organizations and neighboring states or countries shape the lived experience of individuals within the Conflict. The findings also indicate the importance of understanding how the Conflict is impacting various communities, especially marginalized communities such as women and children. Secondly, the findings of this study suggest that future studies examine how various dimensions of peace building interact, including DDR (Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration), and the contributions that civil society organizations, networks, or grassroots movements make to the peace building process.

Critical Reflections on the Contributions of the Study - This study has contributed to understanding the complexity and dynamics of the Conflict in Manipur, particularly as they relate to key incidents, arms lootings, and humanitarian crises. The research has brought to attention the call for accountability, Justice, and reconciliation. The research has shown some complexity around the Conflict in Manipur. The research findings will deepen critical considerations for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners on conflict resolution and peace building in Manipur and similar instances of Conflict. The research emphasized the need to make sense of the complexities of conflict dynamics and the scope to develop imaginative solutions to enhance prospects for sustainable peace.

Conclusion

The conflict in Manipur between the Meitei and Kuki communities has led to severe displacement, property destruction, and loss of life, with allegations of human rights abuses from both sides. Land rights and government representation are among the historical, social, and political factors at the heart of the dispute. Recent violence has escalated, notably after the forest eviction and demands for Scheduled Tribe status for the Meitei. From May 3, 2023, to December 2024, both groups faced violence, including killings and displacements, prompting criticism of the Indian government's response, particularly under Chief Minister N. Biren Singh. Accusations of targeted violence against the Kukis and neglect of the Meiteis have emerged, alongside concerns over the government's bias in security operations. Prime Minister Modi's response to incidents involving the Kuki has been deemed inadequate, raising alarms over the targeting of civilians, including horrific atrocities, with civilians suffering from displacement and lack of access to essentials under International Humanitarian Law protections.

Violence in Manipur has significantly affected the Meitei community, leading to mass displacement and loss of life. Many have taken refuge in relief camps due to the devastation of their homes and villages. Both police and civilians have suffered casualties during the conflict, with internally displaced women and children facing severe hardships in the camps. A series of incidents regarding looted arms and attempted looting were reported at security force bases and police outposts in Manipur. Additionally, many Meetei militants were reportedly killed in Leithao village and Aigejang Kuki hamlet. Reports of severe brutality include the burning of an elderly woman and the kidnapping of six individuals from a relief camp by suspected Kuki militants, whose bodies were later discovered.

Recent events in Manipur have highlighted significant failures in law enforcement regarding the Kuki community. Videos surfaced showing Manipur police allegedly assisting a mob in attacking Kuki settlements, suggesting state complicity in the violence. A particularly shocking incident involved two Kuki women being paraded naked by a mob, condemned by the Indian Prime Minister as detrimental to India's image. Despite the presence of police vehicles, officers failed to act as brutality unfolded. In Imphal, severe accusations against the Arambai Tenggol group include the rape and murder of young Kuki girls, with women's group Meira Paibis reportedly inciting violence against Kuki women. Survivors shared devastating accounts, such as Mrs. Nancy Chingthianniang recounting the murder of her family by a Meitei mob, which also targeted infants. Further disturbing reports describe organized violence against Kuki women involving torture, sexual assaults, and public humiliation by police and Meitei groups. Notably, ten Kuki volunteers were killed under questionable circumstances involving the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), with autopsy reports contradicting official accounts of an encounter. The escalating ethnic conflict between the Meitei and Kuki communities has inflicted widespread suffering, leading to deaths, injuries, and significant displacement, compounded by brutal violence that has destroyed homes, temples, and churches, and left communities without basic resources.

Theoretical contribution - To analyze the Manipur conflict, conflict theory is employed, highlighting competition for resources, power, and ethnicity as root causes of violence and human rights abuses, particularly affecting the Kuki community. Historical and social inequalities contribute to ongoing tensions, necessitating targeted policy intervention. The Ethnic Violence Framework underscores the impact of colonial histories on present ethnic dynamics. Furthermore, the Human Security Framework emphasizes the urgent needs of both Meitei and Kuki civilians, particularly focusing on essential requirements like food, shelter, and healthcare in addressing human security concerns amid the conflict.

Policy Relevance – Civilian protection and atrocity prevention stress the duty to protect, which requires international involvement when nations fail to protect populations from horrific crimes. Early warning systems are essential for identifying signs of potential atrocities, while targeted protection strategies are necessary to support at-risk populations. Legal accountability is required to prosecute under both international law and common jurisdiction. Human rights violations must be documented for the tribunals that will come. Rape as a weapon of war calls for gender sensitive humanitarian responses. They must also safeguard religious freedom, prohibiting the demolition of religious sites and enabling humanitarian access. After the war, it’s all about transitional justice, restitution, and rehabilitation.

FUTURE SCOPE

The results of this research and the limitations encountered supported suggestions for future research that can build on current knowledge of the Manipur conflict and its implications. Examining all of these themes can assist future research in taking the next step toward extending current knowledge of the Conflict.

Study with Diverse Populations and Settings - Subsequent research can examine how the war affected other parties, such as women, children, and the elderly. Women may be researched to examine specifically the problems they experienced during the Conflict, their roles in conflict resolution and peace building, and their place in Manipuri culture. Children can be studied to find out how the Conflict affected their education, socialization, and physical and mental health. Interviewing senior citizens can help uncover how the Conflict affected their experiences, anxieties, and goals. In addition, it would be helpful for researchers to study the processes of Conflict in varying environments, for instance, rural and urban, to contrast the effect the Conflict has on rural and urban populations, such as geography, economy, and social institutions. To understand the conflict processes across regions, including local leaders, militant factions, and civil society organizations, the study may also focus on districts and territories. Through an examination of the effects of the Conflict across a broad array of populations and situations, subsequent studies will be in a position to provide a more thorough insight into the complexities of the Conflict and to determine possible interventions that might ideally reach support for (some) affected groups.

Study on Long term Impacts - The long-term effects of war on people, communities, and society at large can be investigated through longitudinal research. This study may involve researching the incidence and consequences of mental health issues like anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This research may also involve analyzing the impact on livelihoods and income, economic opportunities, and the contribution of reconstruction and rehabilitation activities. The function of peace building initiatives may become clearer through an examination of how Conflict affects interpersonal relationships, social capital, and community trust. By examining the long-term effects of the Conflict, future research will reveal possible areas for intervention and support, and policies and recovery programs will be informed and guided.